Fairground art
See also signwrighting, gilding, reverse glass signpainting and brilliant cutting.
| Status |
Endangered |
| Group or community to which this craft is culturally important e.g. geographical, religious community, cultural identity, cultural practice, traditional industry or occupation |
Showmen and fairgrounds |
| Group or community where this craft is currently practised |
Showmen and other people associated with the fairground (they may have been taught by showmen or be enthusiasts and fairground preservationists). |
| Origin in the UK |
19th Century |
| Current number of makers and/or people who hold the knowledge of this craft within the community |
11-20 in total
Approx. 8 commercial fairground artists.
Approx. 10 who practice for their own purposes e.g. painting their own rides.
There will be a number of people and families within the Showmen community who will paint and decorate their own rides but may not identify themselves as fairground artists or practice commercially. |
| Current number of trainees and/or people who are learning the craft |
No formal apprentices or trainees
Joby Carter runs short courses in fairground art and signwrighting. |
| Other makers |
Not known
The fairground art style is often imitated by other artists and graphic designers who may not have been trained in the craft. |
History
Early fairground art styles featured intricate wood carvings, painted banners and exotic jungle and animal scenery. With limited access to books or media and foreign travel beyond the means of most, a painting at the fairground was probably your best chance to encounter a lion, giraffe or polar bear!
Gilding is an important feature of fairground artwork, with genuine gold leaf being used in early styles; later the use of coloured glazes painted over aluminium leaf became popular, amber yellow giving an impression of real gold, though much cheaper! These glazes were christened “Flamboyants” and feature heavily in fairground art.
The 1930s saw faster, lighter rides appear in fairgrounds, which often featured more uniform Art Deco “jazz” patterns. These could be quickly produced by lessskilled painters working to the designs of a head artist.
After the Second World War booming economic conditions led to showmen increasing the size and grandeur of their equipment, which of course needed new artwork to reflect the culture and fashion of the time, with space travel being a particular favourite.
The 1970s and 80s saw changing tastes with many new rides featuring spectacular airbrushed paintings, often depicting film and music stars, fast cars or sporting heroes.
Today many artists focus on recreating older artwork styles whilst others continue to push boundaries creating new themes, with Showmen always looking to keep their attractions ahead of the competition.
Skills handed down through the generations
Amongst the earliest names known to paint regularly for the fairgrounds was William Spilsbury of Bristol, who worked for local showmen painting animal portraits and jungle scenery, a popular fairground theme. In the early 1900s Spilsbury took on an assistant, Albert Howell, who excelled at animal and jungle scenes as well as painted show banners. Upon Spilsbury’s death in 1907, Albert began working freelance, placing an advert in World’s Fair reading “A.S.Howell, Artist and Decorator, high class painting and decoration for all kinds of exhibitions”.
After a few years and with a growing family to support, Albert accepted a job with George Orton, so moving to Burton on Trent and gaining a steady income. Here, Albert joined a team of painters led by the talented artist Herbert Darby, who was responsible for the designs of the firm’s spectacular Scenic Railway switchbacks with themes of ancient mythology, jungle scenery and the animal kingdom.
By 1930 Albert Howell’s son Sidney had joined the now Orton and Spooner paint shop and he succeeded Darby as head artist in 1933. Sid was an exceptionally gifted artist and had a keen eye for the contemporary designs of the 1930s, creating Art Deco inspired “jazz patterns” which came to decorate most of Orton’s rides of the time. Sid was a brilliant sign writer, creating many ride fronts with his characteristic letterforms and was equally skilled in scenic art in a wide range of subjects.
The other great ride manufacturer of the 1930s was R.J. Lakin of Streatham, where there was always a busy paint shop. Robert Lakin had worked at Orton and Spooner in the 20s demonstrating the firm’s equipment but decided to set up his own company in London.
Painter William Hall followed Lakin from Burton to London to establish a new paint shop but it was William’s son Edwin who came to prominence in the 1930s.
Edwin was talented in many styles and themes including jungle scenery, motorsports and chariot races. Also an excellent sign writer, Edwin developed his own letterforms in many styles.
Sitting outside of the paint shops of the major manufacturers of this period, the showman and artist Charles Duffield built and decorated games and side stalls in his own unique style of scrollwork and lettering. Duffield’s work often required many duplicate artworks, which he used a clever combination of hand painting and stencilling to create. In terms of output, Duffield might well be the most prolific painter mentioned here and happily a great deal of his work survives.
After the Second World War the larger manufacturers began moving away from fairground work, so the former Lakin painter Fred Fowle set up in business with Edwin Hall’s brother Billy.
An unassuming and methodical man, Fowle would become the best known of the fairground painters. Fowle was at first helped with design by Edwin Hall; typical patterns might feature winged wheels, ribbon scrollwork and lightning flashes.
By 1964 Fowle had set up on his own in Balham and he decorated dozens of rides and stalls over the next twenty years, developing his own style using aluminium leaf and flamboyant enamels, often inventing his own unique and stylised letterforms. In collaboration with Fowle a great many ghost trains and fun houses were painted by Roger Vinney, with scenes depicting monsters, ghosts, witches and usually a self-portrait!
As a master craftsman who was eager to teach, many helpers were taken on over the years working alongside Fowle and long-time assistant Len Huckle, with apprentice Mark Gill and Pete Tei becoming prominent artists in their own right during the 80s and 90s. Gill runs his paint shop near Sydney, Australia, catering for local showmen but is also known to travel back to the UK for special commissions. Tei, who works near Derby, is known for his work under the name “Tate Decor” and particularly his modern twist on Fowle’s techniques, nicknamed Tateworm owing to its swirling lines and vibrant colours.
There are of course many more artists within the fairground community who have practised and handed down their skills over many years, all contributing to this unique art form.
Historical details provided by Dingles Fairground Museum https://www.dinglesfhc.co.uk/
Cultural significance
Fairground art is culturally important as a form of outsider art that has been continuously practiced within travelling showmen community since the 19th Century. It has always reflected the fashions and themes of the day, as well as having its own specific heritage. In the UK most of us will have been in contact with more fairground art than we have Old Masters, and yet these artists have never become household names outside of the fairground community.
Showmen have always understood that the bigger and brighter their attraction was, the more custom they might attract, so an up to date and attractively painted “flash” (artwork) became a must. “It’s the Flash which brings the cash!”
Techniques
- Handpainted signwriting
- Use of gold, silver and aluminium leaf
- Use of “flamboyant” paint (more translucent than enamel and used over silver or aluminium leaf)
- Blending, swirls, scrolls
- Lettering that is responsive to the space – e.g. following the surfaces of fairground rides etc.
- Creating pictorial scenes (e.g. Carter’s Steam Fair), traditionally was often given pride of place but lettering has now often taken its place
- Airbrushing
Different fairs and different travelling families have their own distinct styles but there is no local variation as such.
Sub-crafts
Related crafts:
-
Brilliant cutting
-
Gilding
-
Reverse glass signpainting
-
Airbrushed mural painting
-
Showmen’s waggon building
-
Signwriting
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- Awareness of the craft: most people don’t see it as distinctive from signwriting.
- Lack of skilled practitioners: There are very few people with the skills of restoring original fairground art and so repairs and repaints are not of the highest quality.
- Lack of training opportunities: There are no formal training opportunities and it is difficult to find apprenticeships or people to teach.
- Loss of skills: Due to a lack of training, many fairground artists are self-taught and don’t always have the higher level skills of their predecessors.
- Loss of skills: The popularity of vinyl lettering (in the 80/90s) impacted the passing on of skills, although there is now a resurgence of interest in the traditional skills and their aesthetic.
- Changing tastes and fashions: Airbrushing in the 90/2000s has impacted on handpainted traditional fairground art although this has also become an art form in its own right.
- Emulations and imitations of fairground art: This is particularly the case with 1940s and 50s style work. Many artists and graphic designers imitate fairground art style without any training in the underpinning craft skills.
- Poor restorations: These can be done in a vague ‘fairground’ style but don’t have the skill or expertise of a trained fairground artist.
- Availability of materials: The paints are not as readily available as they used to be.
- Decline of travelling funfairs
Support organisations
Craftspeople currently known
- Joby Carter, Carters Steam Fair
- Aaron Stephens, Valentine Signs
- Amy Goodwin
- Pete Tei, Tate Decor
- Harley Harris, H Harris Signwrighting
- Tom Tooley, Tooleys Amusements
- Chris Thomas
- George Hebborn
- Lloyd Holland
- David Manders
- Anna Carter – pictorial artist at Carters Steam Fair
- Katy Morgan
- John Pocket
- Kevin Scrivens – Fairground restorer
- Simon Harris – Fairground restorer
- Horton’s Steam Fair
- Katie B Morgan Decorative Art
- Chris Fenney, Traditional Fairground Co
Mark Gill is based in Sydney.
There are no formal training opportunities in Fairground Art or Signwriting.
Short courses:
- Joby Carter runs short courses in Fairground Art and Signwriting
With thanks to Aaron Stephens, Amy Goodwin and Joby Carter for their contributions to this page, Jan 2023.
Carter’s Steam Fair have been working with Reading University to introduce students to fairground art and signwriting.
References
- Damian La Bas, Where tradition meets innovation: the timeless allure of fairground art. Oct 2022 https://wepresent.wetransfer.com/stories/fairground-art-history
- Carter’s Steam Fair YouTube https://www.youtube.com/@CartersSteamFairOnline/videos
- Geoff Weedon and Richard Ward, Fairground Art: The Art Forms of Travelling Fairs, Carousels, and Carnival Midways, Published by Artabras, 1981
- Fred Fowle, series of short films, Our Business is Fun https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7FRQoT1jBdU
- Dingles Fairground Museum https://www.dinglesfhc.co.uk/
- Joby Carter and Scarlett Rickard, Signwriting: Tips, tricks and inspiration, Published by Carter’s Entertainment Ltd, 2020.
- Fairground Heritage Trust https://www.fairground-heritage.org.uk/
Silk weaving (manufacture of silk fabric)
The manufacture of silk fabric in traditional silk mills. The silk fibres can be mixed with fine denier cotton, wool, and linen weft.
| Status |
Endangered |
| Historic area of significance |
Originating in China, where the Bombyx Mori moth originated, silk weaving has since spread along the Silk Routes. |
| Area currently practised |
Sudbury, Suffolk (2 mills) & Whitchurch, Hampshire (1 mill) |
| Origin in the UK |
Medieval (see history section) |
| Current no. of professionals (main income) |
21-50
18-20 weavers at Stephen Walters
2 weavers at Whitchurch Silk Mill
6 weavers at Gainsborough Silk Weavers |
Current no. of professionals (sideline to main income)
|
0 |
| Current no. of trainees |
1-5
2 at Stephen Walters
1 at Gainsborough Silk Weavers |
Current total no. serious amateur makers
|
|
Current total no. of leisure makers
|
|
History
The English climate is too cold for rearing silkworms, but a silk industry developed in the late Middle Ages processing imported thread and producing silk goods. The art of making silk thread was developed in England by the silk throwsters of London, Leek (Staffordshire), Macclesfield and Congleton (both in Cheshire). Early references to silk weaving in England occur in the trade protection Acts of the last half of the 15th Century banning the import of foreign silk goods.
In England the origin of this important industry was located in Spitalfields, dating from the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV in 1685, when the French Protestants, driven by persecution from their own country, took refuge in England in large numbers. Long before this, however, silk weavers from abroad had settled in England, and during the reign of Henry VIII a considerable number of silk workers, principally from Rouen, made their homes in this country.
The declaration of the Spitalfields Act in the 1790s had forced manufacturers of silk in the East End of London to consider moving away to evade the act and its consequences. Towns on the Essex Suffolk border such as Braintree, Halstead and Sudbury found themselves outside the scope of the Act. Sudbury is a centre for silk weaving and both Gainsborough and Stephen Walters are based in this historic centre, with the only other manufacturer of silk in Whitchurch, Hampshire.
Techniques
- Winding: to make a piece of silk two components are required, the warp and the weft. The warp is the silk thread that forms the length of material, and the weft is the thread woven across the material.
- Warping: to construct a warp the industry uses creels to load threads in the correct order. The individual silk threads from the creel are fed onto a warping mill and then wound onto a drum before being transferred to the warp beam which is placed on the loom for weaving.
- Weaving: the warp beam is threaded onto a loom and the threads are secured in order in a harness. Tappet looms have a cam system for lifting the harness from below and controlling the ‘shed’ (space between lifted and lowered warp ends where the weft shuttle passes). The Dobby loom allows for a more complicated weave structure. This loom shows an improvement in technology and gives a raised pattern. Gainsborough uses jacquard looms where each individual thread can be lifted to create intricate patterns. At Stephen Walters they use rapier looms where individual threads can be lifted according to digital designs.
- Pirn / quill winding: the thread for the weft is wound on to a pirn and these then sit in the shuttles that carry the thread across the warp to create the woven fabric.
Blurb
Sub-crafts
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- Training and recruitment issues – Limited numbers of trainees in the industry. The unique machinery that each silk weaver uses also means that skills and experience are not directly transferrable.
- Supply of raw materials, allied materials and tools – Limited engineering (milling) and foundries (casting) have impacted the ability to keep the machinery in full working order. Inflationary prices and the closure of numerous vital suppliers since the pandemic has made this much more difficult.
- Small business issues – Cost of living crisis and increase in energy prices.
- Ageing workforce – The skilled workforce is getting older.
- Global and geopolitical issues – The supply of silk from China has been restricted and has caused shortages of raw materials. Silk mills have invested heavily in stocks to future proof supplies in the short term.
Support organisations
- Silk Association of Great Britain (SAGB)
- The Weavers’ Company
- UK Fashion and Textile Association
Craftspeople currently known
- Whitchurch Silk Mill – Hampshire
- Gainsborough – Sudbury, Suffolk
- Stephen Walters – Sudbury Silk Mills, Sudbury, Suffolk
- David Walters – Sudbury Silk Mills, Sudbury, Suffolk
- Humphries Weaving – Sudbury Silk Mills, Sudbury, Suffolk
Degrees and postgraduate study
Textile Design Degrees – There are a number of universities and colleges that offer BA Textile Design and some that have specific degrees for weaving. Some will have weaving studios and technicians on hand to support weavers and it is worth checking which ones have the best facilities.
Design Crafts Degrees – Some universities and colleges offer a BA Design Crafts or BA Contemporary Design Crafts that covers a range of craft disciplines, including textiles.
There are a number of universities and colleges that offer MA and PhD opportunities for Textile Design and Design Crafts.
Apprenticeships
The following apprenticeships are available for weavers working in textiles manufacturing:
- Level 2 Apprenticeship – Textile Manufacturing Operative
- Level 4 Apprenticeship – Textile Technical Specialist
The craft of silk weaving is at serious risk of no longer being practised in the UK. There is a shrinking base of craftspeople who practise the craft, with only three manufacturers left in the UK. Gainsborough Silk Weavers, Stephen Walters and Whitchurch Silk Mill. There are very few training opportunities and these are limited to learning on the job at each weaving mill, and the industry is reliant on a few practitioners who hold the skills and their willingness to pass them on to the next generation. The industry suffers from low financial viability, with two commercial silk mills having closed in the last decade (Glemsford & Vanners) and Gainsborough was close to closure before a buyout was agreed a few years ago. Both Stephen Walters and Gainsborough report buoyant orders.
References
Sgian dubh and dirk making
The hand making of the small, single-edged ‘black knife’ worn as part of traditional Scottish Highland dress along with the kilt. See also bladesmithing, kilt making and sporran making.
| Status |
Endangered |
| Group or community to which this craft is culturally important e.g. geographical, religious community, cultural identity, cultural practice, traditional industry or occupation |
The Scottish and Scottish diaspora communities |
| Group or community where this craft is currently practised |
Scotland |
| Origin in the UK |
17th Century |
| Current number of makers and/or people who hold the knowledge of this craft within the community |
6-11 professional makers who can make the dress Sgian Dubh & Dirk (blackwood/bog oak with silver mounts etc.)
11-20 serious amateur makers |
| Current number of trainees and/or people who are learning the craft |
|
| Other makers |
There will be other knife makers making simple horn and wooden handled sgian dubh. These are also traditional knives that would have been worn as working knives during the day. |
History
A sgian dubh is a ceremonial stabbing knife typically worn with full Scottish highland dress. Its cutting edge is generally under three inches and it is worn tucked into the top of the kilt hose (stocking).
The name means “black knife” or “black dagger”. There are differences in opinion on the origins of this name; it could be because of the black wood used in the handle, or it could refer to its original use as a concealed weapon. It is seen worn tucked into socks in paintings from the early 1800s onwards.
The Scottish romantic period was at its height in the reign of Victoria and elaborate dirks and sgian dubhs reached their peak around the end of her reign in 1901. Their popularity as part of highland dress continues to this day, with antique dress sgian dubh fetching high prices.
- Horn Sgian Dubh – would have been worn during the day as a working knife.
- Dress Sgian Dubh – worn as part of Scottish national dress.
- Dirks – a long bladed dagger that is now a symbolic traditional and ceremonial weapon worn by officers, pipers and drummers of Scottish Highland regiments.
Cultural significance
Techniques
- Bladesmithing – As sgian dubh are no longer used for self-defence or for food use, the blades are often of a simple construction. They are often deliberately left blunt edged. They are short bladed, usually around 3 inches long.
- Scabbard making – Traditionally made of leather reinforced with wood and fitted with mounts of silver or some other metal which may be cast or engraved with designs ranging from Scottish thistles, Celtic knotwork, or heraldic elements such as a crest.
- Hilt making – The most highly prized knives have hand-carved ebony or bog wood hilts (hence black knives), sterling silver fittings and may have pommels set with precious or semi-precious stones. Some have antler or bone handles.
Sub-crafts
- Bladesmithing
- Scabbard making
- Hilt making
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- Cheap imports: Many sgian dubh are now made overseas for the mass market and are significantly cheaper than the handmade knives.
- Mass production: Plastic and cheaper components are now often used in the mass production of knives and, again, are significantly cheaper than handmade versions.
- Restrictions on carrying knives: In the UK it is lawful to carry a knife in public only with “good reason”. In most circumstances the police would interpret wanting to wear a sgian dubh as part of a highland dress outfit as good reason, especially in Scotland or as part of an appropriate event.
Support organisations
Craftspeople currently known
References
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sgian-dubh
- The Sgian Dubh, By Joe D. Huddleston
Silk ribbon making
| Status |
Critically endangered |
| Historic area of significance |
Coventry, UK |
| Area currently practised |
Devon, Coventry, West Yorkshire |
| Origin in the UK |
1700s |
| Current no. of professionals (main income) |
1-5
(4 remaining companies) |
Current no. of professionals (sideline to main income)
|
1-5 |
| Current no. of trainees |
0 |
Current total no. serious amateur makers
|
|
Current total no. of leisure makers
|
|
History
Coventry was the main centre of ribbon production in England. Ribbon weaving was Coventry’s main industry from the early 1700s to the 1860s. During this period about half its population made a living from ribbon weaving.
After 1860 ribbon weaving declined but the weaving companies began producing other narrow gauge woven textiles such as badges, labels, bookmarks and pictures. These are primarily made using synthetic materials. The firm of Toye, Kenning & Spencer remains in production in Bedworth, manufacturing coloured ribbons, braids and laces. They have an early Jacquard loom manufactured by T.E. Wilkinson, Textile Engineers of Coventry, at work in the factory.
Wyedean Weaving (West Yorkshire) was established in 1964 as a manufacturer of braid and uniform accoutrement with a key product being ribbon used for medals and medal bars. Historically these were manufactured from pure silk, but due to silk shortages during the Second World War and rising costs, these are now primarily made from nylon. However, Wyedean does occasionally still manufacture medal ribbon in pure silk on some of its traditional shuttle looms.
The remaining companies making silk ribbons make specialist products for a variety of markets including medal ribbons, military, masonic, police and sport.
Techniques
Ribbons are usually made on a narrow loom. These can range from historic jacquard looms to modern computerized looms.
Toye, Kenning & Spencer use a punch card jacquard loom dating back to 1801 for making ceremonial ribbons as well as modern mechanised looms.
At Whitchurch Silk Mill ribbons are woven on a broadloom and cut into ribbons, meaning that they don’t have a woven selvedge.
Sub-crafts
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- Cost and availability of suitable premises: Looms are big and heavy, and require a substantial footprint. Affordable premises are difficult to find and costs continue to rise.
- Raw materials: Cost of raw materials has increased post Brexit and as the UK silk sector has contracted. Silk used to be available in the UK but now is imported from Europe.
- Cost of equipment: Machinery is still available and supported, but new it is very expensive and there is very little available second hand. So the cost of entry is very high.
- Market issues: Silk ribbons are an exceptionally niche, specialist market and have to compete with synthetics and cheaper imports. There are far fewer haberdashery shops and the public have become accustomed to synthetics being the default for ribbons, which are considerably cheaper. Hence the demand for ribbon is mostly ‘historical’ or ceremonial e.g. costume for film/TV, period dress, re-enactment, medal ribbons etc.
- Global and geopolitical issues: Brexit has undeniably made things more difficult. Raw materials have got more expensive and business to business export costs have increased. The retail market to individual private customers in Europe is the biggest area of concern as this has become prohibitively expensive.
Support organisations
- Herbert Art Gallery and Museum
Craftspeople currently known
- Toye, Kenning and Spencer – the last remaining ribbon manufacturer in Coventry, manufacturing coloured ribbons, braids and laces
- Wyedean Weaving – makes a wide range of ribbon and narrow fabrics from a variety of materials including silk, nylon, cotton and polyester.
- Robert Ely, Papilionaceous – makes bespoke jacquard and plain ribbons for a wide range of products including film & TV, costume and art projects.
- Whitchurch Silk Mill – Makes ribbons on broadcloth loom
There are no formal training routes for ribbon weaving although there are opportunities available for textile manufacturing.
Degrees and postgraduate study
Textile Design Degrees – There are a number of universities and colleges that offer BA Textile Design and some that have specific degrees for weaving. Some will have weaving studios and technicians on hand to support weavers and it is worth checking which ones have the best facilities.
Design Crafts Degrees – Some universities and colleges offer a BA Design Crafts or BA Contemporary Design Crafts that covers a range of craft disciplines, including textiles. These are often focussed on helping you to develop a craft business and your creative practice.
There are a number of universities and colleges that offer MA and PhD opportunities for Textile Design and Design Crafts.
Apprenticeships
The following apprenticeships are available for weavers working in textiles manufacturing.
- Level 2 Apprenticeship – Textile Manufacturing Operative
- Level 4 Apprenticeship – Textile Technical Specialist
References
- https://www.theherbert.org/collections/social_and_industrial_history/16/silk_ribbon_weaving
Plume making (military)
Synopsys.
| Status |
Critically endangered |
| Historic area of significance |
From early Bronze Age worldwide |
| Area currently practised |
West London, Devon |
| Origin in the UK |
Plumes were worn from the Bronze Age and were at their height in the late 18th Century in Britain. |
| Current no. of professionals (main income) |
1 |
Current no. of professionals (sideline to main income)
|
1-5 |
| Current no. of trainees |
2 |
Current total no. serious amateur makers
|
0 |
Current total no. of leisure makers
|
There will be re-enactors and living history enthusiasts making plumes. |
History
Since the first cave man put a feather on his head, plumes have had a significant role in military costume. They are a key element in full dress military parades and inspections by dignitaries and royals, heavy horse decoration, weddings and funerals, and marching bands.
There are still currently around sixty different patterns of plume worn by the British Army.
The hackle is a clipped plume or short spray of coloured feathers that is attached to a military headdress, with different colours being associated with particular regiments. In the British Army and the armies of some Commonwealth countries, the hackle is worn by some infantry regiments, especially those designated as fusilier regiments and those with Scottish and Northern Irish origins.
Techniques
- Weaving horse hair
- Mounting and sewing feathers.
Plumes are worn by many of the world’s armies from Ghana to Australia. There are still currently around sixty different patterns of plume worn by the British Army.
Sub-crafts
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- Market issues: Brexit has had an effect on orders with some copies being made overseas and imported by U.K. based uniform makers.
- Training: There are no established training routes for plume making.
- Raw materials: Some feathers are subject to concerns around ethical sourcing. Military plumes made today will use feathers that are a by-product of food production and other cruelty-free sources.
- Loss of skills: There are so few people remaining with the skills that there is significant risk that these skills will not be passed on to the next generation.
Support organisations
Craftspeople currently known
- Louis Chalmers, The Plumery – The Plumery manufactures the entire range of the British Armies plumes in humanely gathered horse hair, yak, wool and feather, along with the Lance Cap and supporting metalwork.
- Jaffé Feathers – Makes feather plumes.
There are no formal training options for plume making.
References
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackle
Pigment making
Pigment making refers to the creation of coloured insoluble particles for use as colourants. Pigments made from mineral or organic raw materials are transformed into colouring compounds using a range of different techniques which use both mechanical and chemical procedures.
| StatusE |
Endangered |
| Historic area of significance |
Worldwide |
| Area currently practised |
England: London, Nottingham, The Lake District
Wales: Forest of Dean |
| Origin in the UK |
Archaeological evidence from Pickering sites of Star Carr and Flixton 9000 BC and from Red Lady of Paviland, an archaeological site in Wales, dating back 10,000 years ago. |
| Current no. of professionals (main income) |
7 commercial pigment makers and teachers producing a wide range of colours.
N.B. This figure does not include artists making pigment and using them in their own work. |
Current no. of professionals (sideline to main income)
|
10 |
| Current no. of trainees |
0 |
Current total no. serious amateur makers
|
15 (estimate) |
Current total no. of leisure makers
|
100+ |
History
The use, extraction and hand-making of pigments for use on the body, in art and more widely within culture is worldwide. There are areas of the world that have rich geology that are known for their mines and subsequently the name of the place enters the nomenclature of the colour itself e.g. Sienna pigments.
In Europe:
- Roussillon, France. Where they still manufacture iron-oxide rich earths into bright pigments.
- U.K, Oxford. An earth pigment called ‘Oxford Ochre’ was once manufactured in Shotover.
- Bideford Black – Mineral Black made in Bideford, U.K.
- Wales, Florence Mine
- ‘Rosso Inglese’ an iron rich earth pigment made minerals from Clearwell was used for the Sistine Chapel and is listed in the Vatican receipts archive, according to Jonathan Wright (free miner of Clearwell Caves).
Pigments are also used widely by Indigenous communities of America, Australia, Hawaii, New Zealand, Polynesia and East Africa.
Since Palaeolithic times, pigment making and its use has been important for human expression. In the U.K. we have two archaeological sites that suggest the use of hand-made pigments dates back to 9000 BC or 11,000 years ago.
Earth pigments
These are pigments made from coloured rock, clay or sediment and are some of the most ancient forms of pigment.
For example, red ochre (ruddle, reddle) is an earth pigment that has had a multitude of different uses throughout time in the U.K:
- Mixed with animal fat and used to preserve sails in the south of England (Devon/Cornwall).
- Used as a polishing compound for lenses during the 1800s.
- Used to mark sheep by farmers (ruddle).
- Used in decoration, wall paintings, fresco, plasterwork see ‘Oxford Ochre’.
- Pigments made from dyes or ‘lake pigments’.
Lake pigments
These are pigments that have been derived from a range of natural plant and animal dyes. A number of different manual and chemical processes converts the dyes into insoluble, more chemically stable pigments.
Lake pigments have been produced since Roman times in the U.K.
Uses of pigments in the UK today
Pigments are important substances that impart colour to other materials, most often used as surface colourants, they have a clear geographical and cultural link to a sense of place. They can be made from mineral origin, such as iron-rich clays, or of animal and plant origin as dyes converted into lake pigments. Lake pigments are made from natural dyes that have been rendered insoluble by precipitating them onto a substrate particle; this is a lengthy process that requires hand mixing, grinding, washing and drying amongst other processes.
The use of pigments to create paint and ink are associated with many cultural practices in the U.K:
- Illumination/ icon painting/ folk art/costumes
- Fine art practises: painting, printmaking (lithography, screen printing) hand tinting photographs etc.
- Architectural decoration: painting of houses with local earth (exterior and interior) e.g. Oxford ochre
- Botany (plant-based pigments)
- Dyeing textiles with organic dyes
- Re-enactments/ historical societies
Techniques
Pigments are used in a wide variety of applications; for making paint, inks, or tinting plaster, fresco, ceramics, for colouring resin and varnishes. A pigment is a colouring material, usually a fine particulate that is insoluble and used in conjunction with a binder in order to make a paint. The craft of hand manufacturing historical pigments involves numerous processes and skilful hand techniques to extract clean and bright colourants from raw materials.
The following processes go into creating colour from these raw materials (these steps are all done by hand).
Processing Lake pigments:
- Identify and locate dye plant, hand-collect plant material (petals, stalks, leaves, seeds or roots).
- Process plant material (removal of unwanted parts, washed and cut into small pieces or dried and ground into a powder).
- Ferment plant material by soaking in water (sometimes with the addition of an acid).
- Put plant material into fresh water and discard old.
- Keep plant cuttings in warm or simmering water for a period of hours.
- Remove plant material from water and filter using paper filters or sieve through a fine cotton or muslin cloth.
- Weigh out alum (used as the ‘base’ to attach the dye to) and add this in a warm solution to plant decoction.
- Weigh alkali (used to ‘fix’ the dye to the alum substrate particles) and add to decoction.
- Stir solution until chemical reaction finishes.
- Filter and wash the precipitated, solid pigment.
- Dry wet pigment on a non-absorbent surface.
- Once dry, grind with a pestle and mortar.
- Sieve pigment to create a uniform and fine particle size (using a 50 mesh sieve).
Processing Earth pigments:
- Locate clay, rock, or sediment rich in iron oxide.
- Collect samples by hand using specialist trowel and put into labelled containers.
- If sample is a soft clay put it in a bucket and mix with water.
- Hard rocks need to be broken down by using different kinds of hammers and chisels to isolate striations of colour within their makeup. Sometimes rocks are placed in canvas bags and crushed with hammers.
- Remove any large organic material (leaves, twigs etc) by hand.
- Remove any large mineral impurities by hand (gravel, flint nodules etc).
- Sieve sample through a series of coarse to medium sieves.
- Let the sample settle to the bottom of the container and pour off the water leaving pigment sludge at the bottom.
- Add fresh water and repeat washing of mineral sample to remove small organic particles and soluble impurities (e.g. salt).
- Levigate sample. This is to isolate different particle sizes in the sample. This is done by adding water to sample before the particles have settled out fully. The water containing the finest samples (that are in suspension) is then poured off into a separate container.
- Allow water to evaporate from sample or spread pigment sludge sample on a non-absorbent surface.
- Once dry, grind with a pestle and mortar.
- Sieve pigment to create a uniform and fine particle size (using a 50 mesh sieve).
The pigments created from these processes can then be mixed with an appropriate binding medium to create various paints and inks or mixed into other materials (like plaster) to tint them.
These processes are by no means representative of the many different ways that pigments can be created but help to identify how pigment making uses repeated movements of the body to create colour (smashing, grinding, washing etc).
Local earth colours will produce different colours and different grain sizes in the pigments due to differences in the geology of the areas. So pigment making is linked intrinsically to place or locality.
Sub-crafts
Related crafts:
- Paint-making / paint milling
- Painting with historical pigments
- Sand art: creation of 2d or 3d works of art using coloured sand or coarse earth pigments as artworks in their own right but also as souvenirs (e.g. Alum Bay sands)
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- Skills issues – There are very few full time pigment makers practising their craft in the U.K. However there are a growing number of artists and other practitioners who are making pigments for their own use as a key part of their work, or artworks.
- Skills issues – There are insufficient full time craftspeople to transmit the craft skills to the next generation.
- Training and recruitment issues – There are no current qualifications for this craft and there are no training funds that are aimed directly at this craft.
- Market issues – Because hand making pigments take a lot of rarefied knowledge, time and processing, for the end user they can be expensive to purchase, in comparison to cheaper imported mass produced colours, thus this craft has a low financial viability.
- Market issues – There is a demand for handmade pigments made to historical British recipes but at the moment there isn’t enough support for this craft to create a larger market demand. This is also linked to the exposure this craft has within the wider cultural heritage of the U.K.
- Supply of raw materials, allied materials and tools – The prices of raw materials, tools and running costs of machinery (if used), energy prices and rental costs of studios/workshops have greatly increased since Brexit and affect the viability of the craft.
- Ageing workforce – Two of the remaining manufacturers are of an ageing demographic, so there are risks that skills and recipes may be lost. As there are no grants or awards aimed to support this craft younger practitioners lack financial support.
- Legislative issues – PPE equipment (e.g. respirators to inhibit fine particulates being breathed in or ingested and air purifiers/extractors) is expensive.
- Global and geopolitical issues – Brexit has had both positive and negative effects in that people are looking for more sustainable local colour but raw materials are more difficult to source.
- Other – Availability of primary resources of historical recipes or other research.
Support organisations
Craftspeople currently known
- Lucy Mayes, London Pigment
- Pip Seymour & Rebecca Wallace, Wallace Seymour – see their pigment list here
- Keith Edwards, Keith Edwards Pigments – has been hand manufacturing pigment for pigment retailers such as L. Cornelissen & Son and Kremer Pigments for over 30 years.
- Florence Mine
- Clearwell Caves – One of the earliest and last ochre mines in the UK. A small amount of yellow, brown, red and purple ochre is still mined by
- Jonathan Wright, a freeminer in the Forest of Dean.
- David Cranswick
- Caroline Ross
- Catalina Christensen
- Ruth Siddall
- UCL, The Slade: ‘Materials Research Project’ is a course led by Jo Volley as part of the BFA there. Lucy Mayes and Ruth Siddall have both taught workshops on pigment making.
- City & Guilds of London Art School and The School of Traditional Arts have previously run workshops on this subject run by David Cranswick.
- Museums/galleries/ institutions are starting to run workshops relating to pigment making to support their art history courses on colour. Lucy Mayes is teaching pigment making at The V&A and Kew Gardens this year.
There are many artists that use pigments as a part of their own individual practices, and a few that collect their own pigments but very few utilise this craft as their main income-generating activity. There is a definite trend within the arts to be more sustainable and use ethically sourced materials. This is something that is of the utmost importance; the artist must have control over the quality and sourcing of their materials in order to produce authentic, ecologically mindful work. The mining of specifically toxic heavy metals such as cobalt, cadmium and lead-based pigments (found in modern pigments and commercially made paint), rather than iron-rich earth colours, is detrimental to the environment. Toxic heavy metals are present in many pigments available to purchase from art shops world-wide. The production of modern synthetic pigments in a laboratory environment also brings up issues of safe waste removal/ pollution.
References
- UCL/ Slade: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/slade/news/2020/03/inaugural-world-pigment-day
- Dr Ruth Siddall/ World Pigment Day: https://www.instagram.com/worldpigmentday/?hl=en https://ucl.academia.edu/RuthSiddall/ https://wildpigmentproject.org/ruth-siddall
- The Pigment Compendium: https://www.routledge.com/Pigment-Compendium/Eastaugh-Walsh-Chaplin-Siddall/p/book/9780750689809
- Patrick Baty: Historical paint consultant
- http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/
- David Cranswick: https://www.davidcranswick.com/
- Clearwell Caves ochre mining: https://clearwellcaves.com/about-us/#ochresection
- Florence Mine Arts Centre: https://www.florenceartscentre.com/
- Pip Seymour and Rebecca Wallace: https://www.wallaceseymour.co.uk/
- Nicholas Walt – owner of L. Cornelissen & Son pigment retailer
