Steel pan making
The making of steel pans, a percussive instrument originating from Trinidad and Tobago (see also percussion instrument making).
| Status |
Currently viable |
| Historic area of significance |
Mostly London |
| Area currently practised |
UK |
| Origin in the UK |
1950s |
History
The steel pan, also known as pan, is the national instrument of Trinidad and Tobago and was invented in the late 1930s. The steel pan developed from the Carnival, which slaves in Trinidad could not take part in so they formed their own, parallel celebration called Canboulay. The first instruments developed in the evolution of steel pan were Tamboo-Bamboos, tunable sticks made of bamboo wood. These were hit onto the ground and with other sticks in order to produce sound. Tamboo-Bamboo bands also included percussion of various metal and glass objects such as spoons and bottles. This then lead onto the invention of the first steel pans. The Trinidad All Steel Percussion Orchestra (known as TASPO) attended the Festival of Britain in 1951 and was the first steel band to perform in the UK.
Techniques
To make a steel pan a 55-gallon oil barrel is stretched into a concave bowl or dish shape. Depending on the type of pan being made, the barrel’s side (or ‘skirt’) is cut to the proper length. The panmaker uses hammers of various sizes and ‘pongs’ the traced notes making them stand out like bubbles. Each note is then tuned by using a variety of hammers until it reaches a perfect pitch.
The hand drum is the newest kind of steel pan instrument.
Sub-crafts
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- Most of the training for tuning and making steel pans take place in the USA or Trinidad.
- Steel pan making does not currently enjoy qualifications from a recognised body such as ABRSM, Trinity or OCR.
Support organisations
Craftspeople currently known
The latest invention is the E Pan and electronic steel pan that operates like a keyboard.
References
Quilling
The rolling, curling, looping and otherwise manipulation narrow strips of paper to make designs, also known as paper filigree.
| Status |
Currently viable |
| Historic area of significance |
UK; England mainly |
| Area currently practised |
UK |
| Origin in the UK |
17th century |
History
Paper rolling, paper scrolling, filigree, mosaic and quilling are all names which have been given to this art during its long history. Some sources suggest that many of the techniques used today were originally practised in Ancient Egypt.
The popularity of quilling has fluctuated. Work of high quality was achieved by French and Italian nuns in the 16th and 17th centuries, genteel ladies in the Stuart period, ladies of leisure in the Georgian and Regency periods – and it is currently enjoying a modern revival.
Nuns on the continent decorated reliquaries and holy pictures, adding gilding and much ornamentation. The ecclesiastical connection was maintained when the art spread to England with the development of paper, though vellum and parchment were also used. Poorer churches produced religious pictures with rolled decoration. When gilded or silvered, it was difficult to distinguish it from real gold or silver filigree work.
Quilling was never practised by ‘working-class’ women in the past. Indeed, it was a decorative art which ladies of leisure would use to work panels and coats-of-arms. Later it was extended to include covering tea-caddies, workboxes, screens, cabinets, frames etc. Backgrounds for these often included foil, mica or flaked shells. Beautiful boxes were made by cabinet makers, with recessed sides. These were advertised and sold, often to boarding schools for young ladies. ‘……it affords an amusement to the female mind capable of the most pleasing and extensive variety; and at the same time, it conduces to fill up a leisure hour with an innocent recreation…’ (The New Lady’s Magazine, 1786)
In 1875 an attempt was made to reintroduce the art of quilling by William Bemrose, who produced a kit called ‘Mosaicon’, together with a handbook. Another reference has been discovered in an Edwardian book of household management entitled ‘Floral Mosaicon’. In the article mention is made of pieces being purchased by Queen Mary and Queen Alexandra.
Enthusiasts include Elizabeth, daughter of George III, Joseph Bramah (the famous locksmith), Mrs Delany (pioneer of other paperwork and friend of Jonathan Swift), Jane Austen (who mentions it in her novel Sense and Sensibility) and the Bronte sisters.
Two major exhibitions of quilling have been held. One was in 1927 in London, when mention is made of two Charles I pictures. Another was in New York in 1988, at the Florian-Papp Gallery, when some superb examples were on exhibition and sale. Most of these were of European origin. In 1992 and 1997 the Quilling Guild staged International Festivals of Quilling, the first at Ragley Hall and the second at Chesford Grange in Warwickshire, when antique pieces and a great many items of modern quilling were on show. The third International Festival of Quilling was held in York, North Yorkshire, in 2002, the fourth in Weston-Super-Mare, Somerset, in 2007, and the ’30th Anniversary Celebration of Quilling’ was staged in Liverpool in 2013.
Techniques
The Quilling Guild has a list of techniques that it has verified as seen in historical quilling (there are many variations of these techniques.):
- Closed loose coil
- Open coil
- Tight coil
- Ring coil
- Fringed flower
- Pom pom
- Wheatear
- Alternate side looping or husking
- Tendril
- Crimping
- Bandaging
- Zig-zagging
- Pixie hood looping
Sub-crafts
Many contemporary artists use quilling techniques to produce paper sculptures and graphic art. There is often debate about what should and should not be classed as ‘quilling’.
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- There is a lack of demand for products, or rather, most people would not pay enough to buy a piece of quilling work to sustain a business selling it. Most who are earning a significant income from quilling are doing so by selling design and instruction books and teaching. In those cases it will not be the person’s main income source. The demand for quilling teachers is sometimes not high enough because quilling is not a widely known craft and so people are less likely to be looking for a quilling teacher.
- It takes a lot of technical and design skills to make high quality, quilled pieces work and it is not always possible for the general public to recognise quality quilling work and therefore it affects the amount that a professional maker can charge for their skills. Because the general public don’t usually know much about quilling, it is hard for them to understand the amount of time and the skills needed to produce high quality quilling work. It is relatively easy to find leisure makers selling quilled work at low prices, maybe because they are pleased to have an outlet for their work rather than wish to make a real income and so this can make it difficult for makers who wish to sell their work at a price that reflects their skills, experience and time taken.
- In many areas of the UK there are no professional quilling tutors. This also means that if someone was keen to become a professional quiller themselves, they may not be able to access face to face teaching.
- Another problem is that quilling, as with other heritage crafts that have historically been prasticed by women, can be perceived of less importance and value than other artforms to the wider art world. This effects the demand and appreciation of high quality quilling work. Quilling is marketed widely as a leisure craft, which is good for attracting more people to try it, but can limit the general public’s understanding of how far the craft can be taken to make innovative and important artworks.
- There is a lack of information available about the importance of quality materials. Many people who quill would not know how good quality materials could improve their quilling and are also limited by their knowledge of where to buy quilling materials. Often the easiest way to access information is via the internet, as craft shops will have limited supplies to choose from and mail order businesses will advertise mainly via the internet.
- The problem with there being a lack of teachers and quilling groups across the country means that people are less likely to try quilling. The Quilling Guild often receives requests asking for information about local tutors and are unable to advise of any.
- The majority of quilled pieces being made are non-functional. Quilling work is often made as a card, which for some is seen as disposable or made into a picture. This can affect people’s interest in the craft, because of the current trend to make and buy functional craft items, as opposed to purely decorative items.
- More substantial quillings were often made on wooden items, such as boxes, frames, tea caddies, plaques, etc., which were relatively inexpensive and easily available. This is no longer the case, discouraging the making of major pieces.
Support organisations
- The Quilling Guild is a charity that does work to promote quilling via its website and social media. It has members who are ‘Local Contacts’ who take on voluntary work to promote quilling, such as providing demonstrations and basic teaching. It also has a limited amount of funding, available to support work and events that promote quilling. The Guild provides a basic and higher level accreditation scheme to its members. It also provides a ‘Celebration Weekend’ once a year, which is held at different locations in the UK
- North American Quilling Guild
Craftspeople currently known
UK Fellows of the Quilling Guild are:
- Audrey Matthews
- Josie Jenkins
- Diane Boden
- Jane Jenkins
- Margaret Haigh
- Paul Jenkins
- Philippa Reid
- Angela Herring
Other makers include:
- Jill Chapman
- Anne Straker
- Jill Lackford
- Christine Herring
- Yuko Martin
- Maria Boulos
- Derek Thorpe
It could be argued that many people are quilling and it continues to be a popular craft; however, the number of professional quillers who have the skills and knowledge needed to sustain the number of quillers who make work at a professional level is at risk of decreasing and is already at a significantly low level. There are only a certain number of people who have a good knowledge about the history of quilling and historical techniques. There are very few published documents about the history of quilling and especially not those that would go into detail about techniques and materials used.
Quilling isn’t usually something people aspire to do to support themselves financially, as it is difficult to make an income from selling, and there is limited demand for teaching. Many mix it with other crafts they do, but do not see themselves specifically as quillers.
References
- Information about quilling and The Quilling Guild, including a brief description of the history of quilling can be found on The Quilling Guild’s website.
- There are many quilling instruction and design books available including a selection by Quilling Guild Fellows Jane Jenkins and Diane Boden (previously Crane).
- Information about and examples of historical quilling is given in a chapter of Riley, Noel, The Accomplished Lady: A History of Genteel Pursuits C. 1660-1860 (ISBN 0957599293)
- There is a catalogue of the exhibition Turin, Pinacoteca Giovanni e Marella Agnelli from
05 April – 02 September 2012, featuring a collection of work by cloistered nuns made between the 17th and 19th centuries. It can be purchased here.
- Quilling Guild fellow Brenda Rhodes has carried out research about the history of quilling which is recorded in an unpublished document. The Quilling Guild is able to provide information from this document upon request.
Heritage tiling and mosaic
Arranging tesserae or tiles in order to create a pattern or an image to decorate the built environment. Heritage tiling, including Victorian geometric and encaustic tiling, are closely related and can be practiced by the same practitioners.
| Status |
Currently viable |
| Historic area of significance |
For ancient mosaics, around the UK south of Hadrian’s Wall.
From the mid-19th century, UK. Important manufacturers, makers and installers of mosaic such as Oppenheimer Ltd in Manchester, Powell & Sons and Jesse Rust & Co. in London. |
| Area currently practised |
UK |
| Origin in the UK |
From around 150 CE, after the Romans established themselves, to the 4th century. Modern mosaic in Britain began in the mid-19th century under the aegis of Henry Cole at the new South Kensington Museum (V&A). The first pavements and images appeared in the 1860s. |
History
The art of mosaic was introduced to Britain during the Roman era when country villas and town houses were adorned with extensive mosaic floors during the 1st to the 5th centuries AD. Many fragments and pavements are still preserved on site as well as in museums throughout the country, giving a sense of the ingenuity and skill of the ancient craftsmen who developed a style with distinct differences from their Mediterranean counterparts.
With notable exceptions, such as the Cosmati Pavement in Westminster Abbey, the art fell into disuse after the Roman period until the Victorian revival when mosaics were exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851 and Henry Cole, the first director of London’s V&A set up a mosaic school at the museum. Cole commissioned mosaic portraits of artistic ‘greats’ to decorate the museum and covered the building’s floors and staircases with beautifully tessellated surfaces.
From the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries, churches, grand municipal buildings and wealthy owners of grand private houses all required mosaic decoration as a matter of fashion and prestige. Consequently, the great mosaic making and fixing companies such as Oppenheimer Ltd. in Manchester, flourished. Following the second world war and into the 1960s, when the modernist movement inspired bold new adventures in architecture, a golden age for grand public mosaics ensued. Notable examples include the John Piper mosaic murals for the prestigious new BBC TV Centre, London (now listed) and the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce; the Merrion Centre Mosaic mural in Leeds by Eric Taylor (now at Leeds College of Art); the huge Three Ships mosaic mural on the old Co-op building in Hull by Alan Boyson (currently under threat of demolition), to name but a few.
At this point mosaic was still a niche area of work, practiced by few highly-specialised crafts people until the establishment in 1988 of the Mosaic Workshop in London by Tessa Hunkin and Emma Biggs. Mosaic subsequently became accessible as a hobby to people interested in exploring the medium in their spare time, whilst professional mosaicists continued to work on municipal and private commissions. Today, with the setting up of the London School of Mosaic and the continued commitment of a significant number of established artists to the medium, mosaic is still appreciated and sought after. It is a time intensive, highly skilled and therefore expensive method of decoration but the renewed interest in artisanal expertise means that it remains an important part of our artistic landscape.
The general lack of understanding of mosaic (even among conservation officers) results in a perception that the difficulty of restoring or even moving large architectural mosaics is insurmountable and important modern mosaics have been and are still are being lost, although the skills are available for their conservation and preservation. A failure to properly maintain existing mosaics has even led to a view that they are insufficiently durable as a medium for public art.
Techniques
Mosaic is an incredibly versatile medium which requires a high level of knowledge to ensure that a work is created using the correct materials and techniques for its proposed environment and purpose. This knowledge can only be gained through training, repeat practice and the acquisition of practical experience.
The principle processes to master include how to cut, how to manipulate and combine materials and how to lay and fix them. Whilst modern mosaics might be made without following strict conventions in terms of design and execution, a set of classical rules from the Roman era provides a distinct frame of reference that still serves to guide contemporary practice.
The original cutting tools of the Romans, the hammer and hardie, continue to be used alongside modern equipment, such as tile nippers, wheeled cutters, wet saws, score and snap tile cutters and chopping machines.
Mosaic materials range from traditional stone, marble and smalti, a Venetian glass which has been used since Byzantine times, as well as newer materials such as litovi, specialised ceramics and various modern types of glass. Mosaic artists also use a wide variety of found items such as shells and pebbles alongside repurposed objects including nuts and bolts, beads, coins, broken pottery and more.
As a versatile artform, mosaic can be applied to many different surfaces or substrates. These typically include prepared wall and floor surfaces, marine plywood and other timber sheet materials, cement board, compressed foam board, polystyrene, ceramic pots and sculptural bases.
There are various fixing techniques within the two fundamental methods of direct or indirect fixing but mosaics can also be set into cast concrete. Indirect fixing is carried out using either the reverse or double reverse method (aka ‘Ravenna method’). Consideration must be given to ensure that suitable adhesives, compatible with the materials and substrate, are selected.
While modern mosaic artists respect historic methods and materials, modern material and techniques play an important role in both the restoration of historic mosaics and the construction of new ones. There has been very considerable innovation in the development of substrates, on which mosaics can be applied, and in the adhesives (tile cements and grouts) that are available. Practising mosaic artists need to be able to keep abreast of these developments, especially when they are working in conjunction with architects and other construction professionals where mosaics are part of the built environment. A working knowledge of construction skills and practice is necessary for the installation of mosaics.
Finally, the repetitive, process-intensive nature of some mosaic making means that it is sometimes possible to include unskilled makers in the fabrication of mosaic (under careful supervision) so that it lends itself to community involvement where it has a valuable, therapeutic and personal development impacts.
Mosaic artists use a variety of materials in their work and each artist will develop their own individual style. Mosaics created for public spaces are usually designed to be integral to their context, reflecting aspects of the local area, its history and geography, local landmarks or community interests.
Some artists create mosaics using materials that are found locally. For example, Scottish artist Dugald MacInnnes creates art using Scottish slate. Other artists such as Cleo Mussi and Caroline Jariwala use recycled china and pottery. Maggy Howarth is well known for her highly technical pebble mosaics, examples of which can be seen in public spaces throughout the UK.
Sub-crafts
- Micro-mosaics
- Pique assiette – using broken pieces of crockery, often own old items, making it very personal, or can be a very cheap way of procuring materials.
- Opus sectile – can be of glass.
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- Training issues: There are few formal training opportunities in heritage tiling and mosaic
- Ageing workforce: Some skilled practitioners are reaching retirement age
- Market issues: Patronage has changed. From the mid-19th to mid-20th centuries churches, banks, museums, public buildings, private houses and even local shops all used tiles to decorate their interiors and entrance ways in various ways. Now, most new work tends to be commissioned by high-end private and commercial clients so the craft depends on there being potential clients with significant resources.
- Market issues: Today mosaic is widely seen in the context of community projects. These range from the Hackney Mosaic Project, a group of volunteers who have created a series of large scale high quality mosaics in London; Gary Drostle’s mosaicked sculptures and pavements commissioned by local authorities and one-off schemes run by professional artists involving members of the local community (e.g. to create school murals).
- Lack of awareness: Mosaic and tiling remains a relatively small but important part of the decorative tradition in the UK. The main issue affecting the viability of mosaic, is the lack of understanding of what mosaic is and how it can be used to enhance public and domestic spaces. However, support organisations (see below) and social media are playing a key role in keeping the art alive.
- Training issues: Until recently, there was a significant challenge for those wishing to develop skills in mosaic, as there is no recognised centre of training for mosaicists and individuals took a range of different routes. The emergence of the London School of Mosaic is providing a focus for learning but there is some way to go in developing recognised vocational training routes for mosaic fabrication and mosaic restoration skills. Currently, the art and design skills necessary and the fabrication and installation skills are often embedded in the same people, although there are a small number of specialist installers.
Support organisations
Craftspeople currently include
See https://bamm.org.uk/artists
Mosaic and heritage tile conservation and restoration
A small number of specialist companies and individual (sole trader) specialists currently work in architectural mosaic and heritage tile restoration and conservation:
- Steve Sinnott, Heritage Tiling and Restoration
- Bullen Conservation (Oldham, Lancs)
- Cliveden Conservation (Taplow, Berks)
- Kampani, Kalypso (London)
- London Mosaic Restoration Ltd (London)
- Mosaic Restoration Manchester – Tracey Cartledge (Manchester)
- Opus Mosaic – Julie Fallon (Belfast)
- Sturge Conservation Studio Ltd (London)
- The Mosaic Restoration Company Ltd (Daventry)
- Trevor Caley Associates Ltd (London)
- WERE Conservation & Contemporary Mosaic (Scotland)
- Dennis Cunningham/Mike – Reiveley Ceramics Mosaic magic
- London mosaic
- Victorian tiling Wales
- Mark Taylor
- David Hoffman
- Sam Caulfield
- Cheshire Restoration
- Versatile Restoration
- JW Restoration
- Opus Restoration
- John O’Driscoll
- Pinnacle Conservation
Mosaic education in the UK is mostly in the form of workshops and courses by individual artists or adult education colleges. In addition, the London School of Mosaic offers the UK’s first diploma course in mosaic.
The current difficulty of operating apprenticeship schemes within the specialist area of architectural mosaic restoration is that mosaic is no longer recognised as a trade within the construction sector and there are no accredited training courses.
The point couldn’t be more clearly illustrated than by the change in the Construction Industry Training Board’s CSCS (Construction Skills Certification Scheme) card system. Early in 2019, the white card (Marble & Mosaic Specialist) was dropped from the scheme so now the only way for these highly skilled and dedicated specialists to work on construction sites is to apply for a green “Labourer Level 2 Award” card.
References
Information provided by the British Association for Modern Mosaic and the London School of Mosaic.
- Fischer, Peter, (1971) Mosaic History and Technique
- Unger, Hans, (1865) Practical Mosaics
- Haswell, J Mellentin, (1973) Manual of Mosaic
- Severini, Gino, (1955) Lezione sul Mosaico
- Howarth, Maggy, (1994) The Art of Pebble Mosaics
- Dierks, Leslie, (1997) Making Mosaics
- Goodwin, Elaine M, (1999) The Art of Decorative Mosaic
- Biggs, Emma, and Hunkin, Tessa, (1999) Mosaic Workshop
- Fassett, Kaffe, and Bahouth, Candice, (1999) Mosaics
- Goodwin, Elaine M, (2003) Encyclopaedia of Mosaic
- Andamento – Annual Journal of BAMM, (2007 to date, continuing)
- Mosaic Art NOW (MAN)
- Mosaic Matters
Model engineering
The making of scale models of machines such as steam engines, combustion engines, railways, railway equipment, machine tools, agricultural machinery and vehicles, aircraft, ships, boats etc from stock materials rather than kits.
| Status |
Currently viable |
| Historic area of significance |
UK – chiefly in industrial or post-industrial areas. |
| Area currently practised |
UK |
| Origin in the UK |
Formally recognised in the 19th century with formation of clubs and magazines but individual practitioners existed in much earlier times. |
History
The term ‘model engineering’ has been in use since 1888. While now mainly a skilled amateur pursuit, in the past engineering models were used as aids to technical education, either as apprentice projects or as classroom or public institutional exhibits. They were also produced as commercial props to support a patent, to visualise a proposed capital venture, or to advertise a manufacturer’s trade. Many museums house original collections of mechanical models stemming from the earliest days of the industrial revolution.
Model engineering remains popular despite major social changes over the past century. Among these changes have been the elimination of steam power (still the most favourite subject for model engineers) from rail transport and industry; and the widespread de-industrialisation of Western countries beginning in the 1970s, along with a shift to consumer society and the introduction of a wide new range of competing leisure pursuits. These changes, along with the older age of many model engineers and decline of new apprenticeships, have prompted a long-running debate among model engineers whether the craft will die out.
Techniques
- Milling
- Turning
- Sheet metalwork
- Thread forming
- Riveting
- Casting
- Pattern making
- Electroforming
- Use of hand tools such as saws and files
- Silver brazing and soldering
- Woodworking
- Draughting either using traditional drawing skills or digitally
NB: there are too many separate skills to list here
Sub-crafts
- Model wheelwrighting (around 5 people making models, 3 to their own design, and 1 in the traditional way, with all dry jointing and conventional wheelwrighting). Although there are examples of model wheelwrighting dating back many years, it was probably only when the Model Horse Drawn Vehicle’s club was operating in the 1960s and 70s that the hobby was seen as a separate branch of model engineering. At that time there were probably in the region of 300 active members supported by those drawing and providing plans of actual vehicles, with a small support network of specialist parts suppliers. Following the demise of the MHDVC, the Guild of Model Wheelwrights came into being in the 1990s to continue support of the hobby, until now with the demise of members and advancing age. Without a follow-on of working members the hobby is very much on its last legs.
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- The public perception of this craft can often be inaccurate, as the word ‘model’ makes people think of toy making rather than the high level of engineering involved in making these models.
- The craft is kept alive purely by amateur involvement as there is not really a market for the models, which are built for personal satisfaction, challenge and peer recognition.
- It is a rapidly ageing craft, with the vast majority of its participants over 60.
- Industry requires fewer people with traditional ‘bench’ skills due to the digital revolution in manufacturing. Retirees having such skills will become much fewer, endangering not only the hobby but the ‘experience base’ from which new younger talent can be drawn.
- Whilst there are many people involved in the craft the majority are making from published drawings rather than creating their own.
- Although the best engineering models are highly attractive aesthetic objects in their own right, they are not often appreciated in the wider craft world and not often welcome at general craft shows.
- The craft requires access to expensive tools, such as lathes and milling machines, so is difficult for the beginner to enter the crafts without a degree of investment and commitment.
- There are safety issues such as boiler safety and the risks associated with demonstrating working models to the public.
- An infrastructure of suppliers (tools, materials, etc) does exist but is also diminishing, especially in terms of quality. In times past, everything was made in the UK. The serious engineer sometimes has to resort to making his own tools and fixings.
Support organisations
Until recently there were five annual model engineering shows in the UK – two in London, one in Bristol, one in the Midlands, and one in the North. The Bristol show has been temporarily cancelled and one of the London shows may not be continuing.
Craftspeople currently known
The Model Engineering website lists the clubs up and down the country.
The combined club membership may be around 25,000. There are many more who do not belong to clubs. It is thought that the number of active members (in the making sense) might be less than 10 per cent. Of these a tiny proportion could be considered highly skilled.
References
- Model Engineering website
- Magazines: Model Engineer, Engineering in Miniature, The Model Engineers’ Workshop.
- The magazine The Model Engineers’ Workshop has published a series by Stephen Wessel all about the trade that outlines some of his working methods. This would be a good read for anyone contemplating entering the field.
- The Guild of Model Wheelwrights Magazine, Wheelwrites, is still available as 70 issues on a disc.
French polishing
The application of layers of shellac and oils to provide a high gloss finish to wood.
| Status |
Currently viable |
| Historic area of significance |
Nationally in buildings and on furniture from the 18th century when finer timbers were Imported in higher volumes. Compared to European timbers they could be turned to a finer degree and their close grains meant that the shellacs held up well and to a high sheen (in both solid timber form and veneers) |
| Area currently practised |
Throughout the UK in varying sizes of polishing companies. Wherever there are buildings of significance and their owners wish to restore correctly then there is a need for French Polishers. |
| Origin in the UK |
18th Century |
History
French polishing became prominent in the 18th century. In the Victorian era, French polishing was commonly used on mahogany and other expensive timbers. It was considered the best finish for fine furniture and string instruments such as pianos and guitars.
Furniture and timber work was, before the import of the fine timbers, usually limited to Oak, Elms and Chestnuts. They were very open grained and the way of sealing them was with beeswax. When the finer timbers came in the beeswax finish did nothing to bring out their beauty. A technique was introduced that was being used in France (where they too were bringing timbers back from their empires). Thus the purchaser of the items of furniture, doors or panelling had a choice of a traditional beeswax polishing….. “French polishing”… The term French polishing does not exist in France.
Techniques
The most traditional way is by using differing types of shellac (button polish, garnet polish, white polish, transparent polish to name but a few) that give differing colours. They are first applied by a “polishers mop” (A brush that traditionally used squirrel hair or bear hair). The hairs in a mop, unlike a paint brush, hold the thin and fine material within – If you dip a paint brush into polish it all just drips out. This allows you to “Charge” your mop and then spread it evenly on the timber. The first 1 or 2 coats are applied in this way in order to get volume of material onto the wood. It can then be “Cut back” using very fine sand paper…. THEN you switch to a French polishers “Rubber” with is a cotton wading surrounded by a piece of fine cotton. When this is dipped in the polish it “Charges” the rubber and then you can wipe this over the surface of the brushed coats. The “New coat dissolves the coat underneath and forces the polish into the grain of the timber.. Over time you end up with a glass-like finish but unlike materials such as varnish you do not get a thick build.
There are many many variations to the above including using oil in the polish to allow it to glide over the previous coat wile “Choking” the grain. The oil then needs to be “Spirited off” there is pumice powder that you can add to speed up the choking
Sub-crafts
Allied crafts:
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- Throwaway furniture is more common nowadays and less timber panelling is used within larger buildings.
- Banks and other public that required the skills of the French polisher have closed.
- Modern alternative products have become more common – why pay a French polisher when a decorator can put on a coat of interior stain?
- The price of antiques has dropped so people are more likely to replace an item rather that restore it.
- Dichloromethane (paint stripper) has been banned, meaning removing old finishes takes longer and costs more. The use of water-based products, which are less flammable to apply and do not give off organic solvents, has increased.
Support organisations
Craftspeople currently known
Crafts businesses:
- Terry Waters French Polishing
- SJM French Polishing
- McQuade French Polishing
- Martin Allen French Polishing
- Barwood
- Alan Farr French Polishing
Individual craftspeople:
- Andy Stonebridge
- Tom Moss
- Andy Morrison
- Lloyd Morrison
- Chris Oshea
- Stuart Munn
- Kevin Munn
- Amanda Champion
- Ian Stephens
- Chris Chinnery
- Nigel Curtis
Suppliers of French Polishes
References
Enamelling
The craft of using crushed glass powder, mixed with metal oxides, to decorate metal or glass.
| Status |
Currently viable |
| Historic area of significance |
London |
| Area currently practised |
UK (studio enamelling); Birmingham (industrial enamelling) |
| Origin in the UK |
Early Medieval |
History
Enamel is crushed glass powder, mixed with metal oxides to give it colour. It is then painted, sprayed onto, or dipped into metal or glass before it is fired. Kilns used for firing glass have altered, speeding up the process, but little else has changed in terms of fundamental techniques.
The craft of enamelling dates back at least 2,500 years and was widespread in Medieval times. Early Medieval examples from the sixth century have been found at Sutton Hoo in Suffolk, and the famous Alfred jewel dates from around 900AD. Studio enamelling dates from the late-nineteenth century. Enamelling has tended to following artistic movements, copying the styles and techniques in enamel.
Enamelling can be divided into three groups:
- Industrial – making products such as signs, medals and badges.
- Studio – designer craftspeople who make, design and sell their own work through galleries or craft shows.
- Trade – freelancers who undertake enamelling for other goldsmiths, silversmiths or jewellers who need the expertise of the traditional workshop.
Traditionally, enamelling is done on a surface of gold, silver or copper, but enamelling on steel has grown popular in recent years. Whilst this started as something used exclusively for road signs, underground signs, building cladding etc., many craft practitioners are now working on smaller pieces of steel to produce pictures.
Techniques
Techniques vary depending on the material being enamelled and the desired outcome of the enameller.
Enamel is fired at around 750-1,000°C, either in a kiln or using a torch with either propane or Mapp gas, and the firing lasts between 45 seconds and three minutes. High firing is unique to enamelling. This is the technique of firing the enamels at higher temperatures than those that only melt the glass. Many enamels will produce different colours than those obtained by simply melting the glass, resulting in colours and textures that cannot be obtained in any other medium. However great skill is needed to get the temperature and the timing of these high firings right.
Jewellers, goldsmiths and silversmiths wet pack coloured grains of transparent enamels, creating relatively small areas of images and decorative surfaces with the colours laid out side by side. While colours are not mixed like paint, they can be layered over one another to create different colours and blend from one to another. Enamellers working on copper sift the grains of enamel over larger surfaces and work with applying layers of colour, both transparent and opaque. They work with the enamels like painters but do not employ brushes. Instead the grains are gummed down and designs and shapes are carved out of the dried enamels. Stencils are commonly used.
In industrial enamelling, liquid industrial enamels are applied to large steel panels with a spray gun. This type of enamelling was developed in the twentieth century but only a few can practise it because the pieces must be fired in a commercial enamelling factory that makes panels for signage, cladding of buildings and internal walls that must be fireproof. This type of industrial enamelling has declined in the last 30 years and there is now only one large enamelling factory and one small enamelling factory (previously there were at least four).
- Cloisonné
- Champlevé
- Basse-taille
- Plique-à-jour
- Grisaille
Sub-crafts
Issues affecting the viability of the craft
- Whilst there is a large body of amateur enamellers, professionals are a much rarer breed and are usually self-employed (rather than working in workshops).
- The number of workshops has shrunk considerably. In the past, workshops used to be as large as 9-10 people, training their own apprentices and continuing the line, but today what workshops are left are now sole traders, two people at most, with little chance of new apprentices coming through.
Taking on an apprentice at the current time requires serious consideration as to the future of apprentices – is it fair to train and pass on knowledge to the next generation if the amount of work available is not enough to support him/her in the coming years?
- While apprenticeship is the traditional approach, there is also a shortage of paid courses in private jewellery/silversmithing schools and universities teaching this craft.
- Materials have changed and often resin is used as a powdered glass alternative. While the process is much easier and there is no firing involved (sometimes called ‘cold enamelling’) and very often consumers confuse the two – only hot enamelling is the traditional craft.
- If there are no new entrants, the workshops begin to close, and the demand which was there for these skills also begins to decline because of the difficulty in finding someone to undertake the work, so designers cease including enamel work in their designs to cut out the problem of finding someone to undertake the work.
- The medal, regalia, badge and pen manufacturers based in the jewellery quarter in Birmingham have some employed enamellers, but one firm only has two enamellers over the age of 80 and their comments implied a reluctance to employ apprentices.
- Enamelling has tended to following artistic movements, copying the styles and techniques in enamel. This causes a problem today when art as it is currently practised often has no material element. However, enamel does sell well in craft fairs to people who are motivated by their own tastes.
- People need to be educated about what enamelling is as they do not realise what skill and effort goes into creating the pieces. People who understand and appreciate enamelling will buy it, but very often people think it’s some sort of paint (or similar) applied to the surface.
- The quality of enamels is changing due to EU health and safety regulations. At present, leaded enamels are still being manufactured in the UK but many beautiful colours have been withdrawn due to difficulties in obtaining the materials. New ranges of lead-free enamels are being produced and they are good enough for the semi-professional/hobby kind of enamelling, but it is uncertain whether the few remaining skilled professional enamellers using traditional techniques will be able to continue producing work of the highest quality.
- Some of the materials and equipment are very expensive making it prohibitive for new entrants to venture on the journey. There are not many studios to rent or just a bench and a kiln, and when there is it’s often poorly equipped and expensive. Some communal studios charge per firing, which is impractical since the pieces need to go in the kiln multiple times, sometimes a dozen or more.
Support organisations
Craftspeople currently known
The British Society of Enamellers and the Guild of Enamellers both have membership lists of practising enamellers.
Enamelling businesses:
- Deakin and Francis, Birmingham
- Fattorini, Birmingham
- A J Wells & Sons, Isle of Wight
The Goldsmiths Centre runs a school for apprentices where they teach enamelling. There are a lot of part-time enamellers in the UK who frequently attend courses at West Dean College and other short course venues. For traditional professional enamelling, it estimated that there might be 21-50 trainees in the country. Jewellery courses in art colleges turn out 30-50 graduates a year but their output is largely experimental, individual and sold though craft shops and galleries, with very few of them managing to support themselves with their work.
References
