Flax, hemp and nettle (bast fibre) processing

Early History (Prehistoric–Medieval Periods)

• Flax and Linen: Evidence of flax cultivation in Britain dates back to the Bronze Age (c. 2000 BCE). The Romans (1st–5th centuries CE) expanded linen production, and by the medieval period, it was widely used, especially in Scotland and Ireland.
• Hemp: It is generally agreed that the Anglo Saxons brought cannabis sativa to Britain, and this is shown in pollen levels in core sediment samples such as from the mere in Diss and Quidenham. Hemp became crucial for making ropes, sails, and textiles, especially for the navy. By the Middle Ages, it was widely grown for industrial use.
• Nettle Fibre: Wild nettles were used for textiles before cotton became common. Medieval peasants and soldiers wore nettle-based cloth, particularly during times when other fibres were scarce.

Tudor and Stuart Periods (16th–17th Centuries)

• Flax and Hemp: Henry VIII mandated hemp and flax cultivation to support the navy (for rigging, sails, and uniforms).
• Nettle Fibre: Used as an alternative to linen, especially among the rural poor.

Industrial Revolution (18th–19th Centuries)

• Linen Industry Boomed: Ireland and Scotland became major producers, with Belfast (“Linenopolis”) and Dundee as key centres. Mechanized spinning and weaving increased output.
• Hemp remained essential for ropes and industrial use but declined with the rise of cotton and synthetic materials.
• Nettle Fibre: Largely replaced by cotton and imported fibres, though it was still used in times of shortage (e.g., during the Napoleonic Wars).

20th Century Decline

• Flax and linen production fell due to competition from cotton and synthetic fibres and wider economic and agricultural factors.
• Hemp was restricted due to legal concerns, leading to its near disappearance.
• Nettle Fibre had a brief revival during WWI and WWII, when other materials were scarce.

21st Century Revival

• Hemp: Increasingly grown for eco-friendly textiles, bioplastics, and construction (hempcrete).
• Flax and Linen: Small-scale artisan production continues, particularly for sustainable fashion.
• Nettle Fibre: There is a growing interest in nettle fibre for its sustainability and strength but it is not currently being produced or worked beyond the small scale.

Today, flax, hemp, and nettle fibres are seeing renewed interest as part of the UK’s sustainable textile movement.

These processes refer to the traditional hand processes, although some processes are also carried out with specialist machinery.

Flax Processing (Linen Production)

• Retting: The stalks are soaked in tanks of water (or left to dew rett in the field) to break down pectins.
• Breaking & Scutching: Dried stalks are broken and scraped to separate fibres from the woody material.
• Hackling (Combing): Fibres are combed to remove short strands and impurities.
• Spinning & Weaving: Fibres are spun into linen yarn and woven into fabric.

Hemp Processing

• Retting: Like flax, hemp is water- or dew-retted to loosen fibres.
• Decortication: Machines or hand tools separate fibres from the tough woody core (hurd). Decortication creates short fibres that are blended or used for composites and building materials, for long line textile fibres the same as linen is used i.e. breaking, scutching, hackling.
• Softening & Carding: Fibres are softened and aligned for spinning.
• Spinning & Weaving: Coarser fibres are used for rope, while finer ones are woven into fabric.

Nettle Fibre Processing

• Harvesting & Drying: Stems are collected, dried, and stripped of leaves.
• Retting: Similar to flax and hemp, nettles are retted to break down plant glue.
• Beating & Combing: Fibres are beaten and combed to remove short strands.
• Spinning & Weaving: The fibres are spun into yarn, traditionally mixed with other fibres like wool.

These traditional methods are now being refined with modern technology to improve efficiency and sustainability.

Allied crafts/trades

• Flax, hemp and nettle cultivation
• Linen weaving
• Linen damask weaving (Irish Linen)
• Sail cloth making and maritime crafts
• Hemp rope making
• Net making
• Beetling

• Market issues: There is a demand for UK made linen but there are issues around processing and the supply chain. The supply chain isn’t yet functioning, so local farmers are not yet growing on any scale. Any UK made linen is likely to be higher in cost, this needs to be carefully considered and alternative business methods developed to support local production.
• Supply of raw materials, allied materials and tools: Getting flax seed is an issue as it is imported and sold under licence. Machinery and equipment are obsolete and there are issues around maintenance and spares. Mallon linen and others will often have to refurbish, invent or adapt tools to do the job. For example, Mallon Linen are retting flax in recycled cheese vat.
• Small business issues: There is a lot of work in setting up a small business to do this process.
• Ageing workforce: In Northern Ireland much of the knowledge is still held within the older generation. The people with working memory of flax and linen production are now quite elderly. In the rest of the UK this knowledge was lost some time ago.
• Legislative issues: Flax seed is by legislation classed as an agricultural crop and therefore new or even heritage varieties would have to undergo testing etc. to be sold.  Seeds are also subject to plant breeders’ rights which protects them from un-authorised reselling or packaging.
• Global and geopolitical issues: Brexit has made importing seed more difficult

Positive developments:

• Increased awareness of hemp, flax and nettle fibres: There has been a great deal of interest in hemp and flax growing in recent years both as a craft and as a method of working towards a more sustainable future. Flax growing is a particularly good way of introducing people to natural fibres and even the shorter varieties primarily produced for edible seed do give fibre.
• Sustainable fibre production: Hemp and flax are both considered to be sustainable fibres, using considerably less water and pesticides than cotton. They are also well suited to the UK climate and could reduce dependence on imported textile fibres.
• Opportunities for innovation: There has been a resurgence in interest by universities and other researchers into the potential for using hemp and flax in a wide range of applications including composite materials and engineering. Some of these, such as Hempcrete, are now widely available.

• Fantasy fibre mill https://www.fantasyfibremill.com/
• Flaxland https://www.flaxland.co.uk/
• Guild of Weavers, Spinners and Dyers: https://www.wsd.org.uk/
• Irish Linen Guild: https://irishlinen.co.uk/
• The Flax Project
• Bast Fibre Commons https://www.bastfibrecommons.org/
• Liflad CIC https://liflad.co.uk
• Let’s Grow Flax
• Fibreshed
• Contemporary Hempery

Flaxland – Simon and Ann Cooper, founders of Flaxland in 2008, have been instrumental in reviving the cultivation and processing of flax in the UK. Combining their interests in traditional maritime wooden boats and farming, they have explored the use of homegrown flax for fabric-covered crafts, leading to the establishment of Flaxland.

At Flaxland, located near Stroud, Gloucestershire, they focus on growing flax and processing it into linen using traditional methods. They have developed hand tools and techniques to harvest and process flax by hand, aiming to reintroduce these skills in the UK.

Simon Cooper is also developing flax fishing nets that utilise traditional techniques. The products of this will be displayed at the Clovelly Herring Festival.

Through workshops and educational initiatives, Ann and Simon Cooper share their expertise in flax cultivation and processing, promoting the use of natural fibres in both traditional and modern applications.

Let’s Grow Flax – founded by Brigitte Kaltenbacher, is a communal flax growing group with 15 core members and 30 members in total. 8 of them have gone on to making their own tools. In 2024 they managed to produce a pair of linen denim jeans from the group’s crop and fibre.

The plans for the tools are available Open Access: Build a mini flax break by Let’s Grow Flax

Totnes Grows Flax – a partnership between Liflad CIC, The Flax Project and Transition Totnes will engage community in the South Hams area to grow flax this year. We hope also to join forces with the European Groups doing the same 1sqm flax growing.

A partnership between Liflad CIC, Southwest England Fibreshed, Fantasy Fibre Mill and Wessex Community Assets has funding to revive the textile industry in the Southwest with a focus on flax. They will work collaboratively and with other organisation like Flaxland and The Flax Project, sharing funding and resources to develop the necessary small-scale infrastructure and culture in the region.

The Flax Project – Flax Project CIC, founded by Vicky Putler, is based in Plymouth and SE Cornwall. Its mission is to revive sustainable, non-polluting small scale linen production in the South West, Tamar Valley and Plymouth and provide training and education in flax and textile crafts.

It is also estimated that there are around 25 flax growing projects UK wide.

There are no formal training providers for flax processing. However, there is an active community of people and community projects offering short courses.

Short courses in flax growing and processing 

• Let’s Grow Flax offer a range of learning opportunities
• West Dean College is running short courses in ‘Grow Your Own Clothes’ with Allan Brown
• Flax Project CIC with Vicky Putler
• Plans to introduce bast fibres to the Apricot Centre CIC are in development for 2025. Some farming and fibre content is already taught on their Level 3 and 4 regenerative farming courses.

• Allan Brown – Hedgerow Couture and The Nettle Dress
• Simon and Ann Cooper – Flaxland
• Brigitte Kaltenbacher – Let’s Grow Flax
• Rosie Bristow & Nick Evans – Fantasy Fibre Mill
• Zoe Gilbertson – Liflad
• Helen Keys and Charlie Mallon – Mallon Linen
• Claire O’Sullivan and Kitty Wilson – Contemporary Hempery
• Mario Sierra – Mourne Textiles
• Vicky Putler – The Flax Project
• Arwen Roberts – Gower Flax
• Alice Hume – From Soil to Cloth project
• Sally Pointer
• Alice Fox

Area currently practised

There are pockets of activity across the UK associated with the increase in the growing of flax, hemp and other fibres.

Hemp is being grown in the UK in modest but increasing amounts for a variety of product s including fibre products such as hempcrete and textiles.

The only commercial flax scutching is currently taking place in Northern Ireland. Small-scale experimental amounts of flax scutching, on newly developed open-source machinery, is happening in Scotland and Dorset.

Origin in the UK

Research has shown flax and linen production in the UK dates back to 4000BC. Archaeological evidence suggests that flax was cultivated and used for textiles in prehistoric Britain. The Romans (1st–5th centuries CE) further encouraged linen production, introducing improved cultivation and weaving techniques.

Flax fibre: Innovation and Change in the Early Neolithic A Technological and Material Perspective Susanna Harris University College London, 2014

https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1468221/1/Harris%202015%20Flax%20Innovation%20TSA%20913.pdf

• Flax fibre: Innovation and Change in the Early Neolithic A Technological and Material Perspective Susanna Harris University College London, 2014 https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1468221/1/Harris%202015%20Flax%20Innovation%20TSA%20913.pdf
• Why Would Anyone Make Linen Jeans?, Nov 28, Carly Kelleher https://www.sustainablefashionweek.uk/opinion/why-would-anyone-make-linen-jeans
• Flaxland website: https://www.flaxland.co.uk/
• Build a mini flax break by Let’s Grow Flax
• Northern Ireland Natural Fibre Scoping Study, Prof Jane McCann: NFC Scoping Study NI 2019
• Flax and Hemp, by Alexander Kirkwood
• Modern Flax, Hemp, and Jute Spinning and Twisting: A Practical Handbook for the Use of Flax, Hemp, and Jute Spinners, Thread, Twine, and Rope Makers by Herbert R. Carter
• Flax Fibre for technical textile: A life Cycle InventoryAlejandra Gomez-Campos , Claire Vialle, Antoine Rouilly, Caroline Sablayrolles, Lorie Hamelin 2020
• The Biology and Processing of Flax,  H. S. Shekhar Sharma, C. F. van Sumere. M Publications, 1992
• https://www.churchillfellowship.org/ideas-experts/ideas-library/bioregional-resilience-through-bast-fibres/

Our thanks go to our 2025 contributors and reviewers:

• Simon Cooper, Flaxland
• Allan Brown, the Nettle Dress and Hedgerow Couture
• Helen Keys, Mallon Linen
• Brigitte Kaltenbacher, Let’s Grow Flax
• Nick Evans, Fantasy Fibre Mill
• Arwen Roberts, Gower Flax
• Zoe Gilbertson, Liflad
• Vicky Putler, The Flax Project
• Emma Hague, South West England Fibre Shed
• Claire O’Sullivan, The Contemporary Hempery

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